A Model of Driving Tests Battery Validation

A Model of Driving Tests Battery Validation MARKUS SOMMER, GERNOT SCHUHFRIEDâˆâ€", MIHAI ANIÃ…Â ¢EI, MIHAELA CHRAIFâˆâ€"âˆâ€" Abstract Designing a driving test battery is the most secure way to predict the driver behavior before  obtaining driver license. The objective is to design a psychological test battery to predict the driving  behavior of the potential drivers. The participants were 106 persons, both male and female, age  between 18 and 45 years old (M=34.4, 4; S.D. =1.32), different levels of education. The validity  criterion has been selected according the driving tasks during driving on the road. Thus, the value of  the test reveals the fact that the model has a strong predictive value for the chosen criteria. Key words: criteria, predictors, tachitoscopic test, determination test. 1. INTRODUCTION First studies in simulated task environments have shown that quite a large  part of the participants do not notice information that is not in accordance with  their expectations or when they do notice the information responses are delayed  (Martens, 2004; Martens Fox, 2003). This negative side of getting familiar with  a certain task environment might be the result of not spending enough time fixating  the objects in the task environment. But this decrease in fixation times to objects in  the task environment once people get familiar with the environment has only been  shown in computer-simulated environments. Drivers should question any driving skills test that does not include all the  test components as described in the appropriate study guide. In Table 1 can be seen  the required driving skills test components and the approximate time needed to  complete each. Thus the times are estimates based on an average length driving  route, good weather conditions, light traffic and a well-prepared driver. Furthermore  the same authors underline that skills tests must include all the segments listed in   Table 1. In this way a test may take more time than shown in this table, but should Also the guide underline the procedures of taking curves, entering into the  crossroads and others. These represents for the psychologists criteria in validation  of the driving tests baterry. Underlining the importance of visual functions in driving, such as acuity,  field, contrast, color and night vision can be measured as part of an eye  examination. Functional vision includes performance of daily living skills, reading  ability, mobility skills and driving skills. In this way the measurement of visual  functions is often used as a substitute from which to estimate functional vision.   According to the visual standards (Colenbrander, A. De Laey, J.J., 2006), the  visual acuity is measured often, visual field sometimes and contrast sensitivity  rarely. The authors underline that estimating predicted driving performance on the  basis of a few parameters, many other factors, such as training, experience and  familiarity with the driving environment can affect the prediction. In this way the  authors present in Figure 1 particularities of vision related functioning. As it can be observed in Figure 1, the authors undeline that the driving tests  included into the tests battery has to predict the driving performances in traffic. In  this way, they highlite that the driving safety does not depend so much on what is  seen, but rather on how quickly and how adequately drivers respond to what is  seen. So, is the moment when the time reaction tests has to be included into a  driving tests baterry. When human observers look at an optic flow stimulus their eye movements  show a regular alternation of gaze shifts and slow tracking movements at a  frequency of about 2 Hz (Niemann, Lappe, Buscher Hoffmann, 1999; Lappe   Hoffmann, 2000).Many perceptual experiments have shown that heading can be perceived  from optic flow (J.E. Cutting, P.M. Vishton, M. Flà ¼ckinger, B. Baumberger, and  J.D. Gerndt, 1997; Turano and X. Wang, 1994; Warren, D.R. Mestre, A.W.   Blackwell, and M.W. Morris, 1991; Stone and J.A. Perrone; 1997). They have  identified important requirements for accurate analysis as well as sources of error. A particular concern are eye movements which are induced by optic flow and  which, by distorting the structure of the flow field projected in the eye, compromise  heading detection. 2. THE OBJECTIVES, HYPOTHESYS, PARTICIPANTS The objective is focused to design a psychological test battery to predict the  driving behavior of the potential drivers in the way of decreasing the accident risk. The independent variables of the tests baterry are predictors for the driving  performances in traffic. The participants were 106 persons, both male and female, age between  18 and 45 years old (M = 34.4, 4; S.D. = 1.32), different levels of education. Also,  the participants were driving school students tested at two driving schools from  Bucharest. Organ structure Organ function Skills and abilities Societal consequenc. THE ORGAN THE PERSON Examples: Injury Degeneration Visual acuity Visual field Reading Mobility Employment Quality of Life ICIDH: Disorder Impairment Disability Handicap ICF: Body structure Body function Activities and Participation Barriers and Facilitators Vision: Visual Functions How the eye functions Functional Vision How the person functions DRIVING Acuity test Field test Contrast Driving ability test Driving in actual trafic Traffic conditions 246 Markus Sommer et al. 4 3. THE METHOD 3.1. THE INSTRUMENTS – RT – Reaction Test (Schuhfried, 2007). With the RT is it possible to  measure reaction time as both a simple choice and a multiple-choice reaction. Yellow light stimulus modalities are available in the test battery, so that different  stimulus constellations for the measurement of reaction time can be created. These  can range from individual stimuli to simultaneous or sequentially presented  stimulus combinations. The use of a rest key and a reaction key makes it possible  to distinguish between reaction and motor time. – Determination test (Schuhfried, 2007). The test is used to measure reactive  stress tolerance and the associated ability to react and requires the respondent to  use his cognitive skills to distinguish different colors and sounds, to memorize the  relevant characteristics of stimulus configurations, response buttons and assignment  rules, and to select the relevant responses according to the assignment rules laid  down in the instructions and/or learned in the course of the test. The difficulty of  the DT arises from the need to sustain continuous, rapid and varying responses to  rapidly changing stimuli. – Tachitoscopic test (Schuhfried, 2007). The ATAVT tests observational  ability by briefly presenting pictures of traffic situations. The items are constructed  using an explicit, theory-led rationale which is based on detailed analysis of the  cognitive processes involved in working the test. The design of the ATAVT is  based on the principles used in the well-established TAVTMB test but builds on  these by taking account of recent research findings relating to the perception of  scenes and objects. – Visiotest-Stereoscopy. The Visiotest-Campitest with 6 visual acuity tests  and the extension of the peripheral visual field. For the research, only the  stereoscopic visual test was used. The test consist in a table with letters (A, B, C)  which for a person with stereoscopic vision appears at different distances.The correlation matrix from Table 3 reveal the statistically significant  correlations between the criterias and the predictors. Thus, the criteria right curve,  cross road correlate statistically significant and positive with the following  predictors: tahitoscop corect (34**), DT corect (.27**), reaction time (.41**),  motor time (.32**). The same criteria correlate statistically significant and negative  (p Taking in consideration the criteria stop to the pedestrian crossing from the  same Table 3, can be observed a statistically significant and positive correlation  between this criteria and the following predictors: DT corrrect (.38**), motor time  reaction (.19*) and S.D. motor time (.17*). The same criteria correlate statistically  significant and negative with the following predictors: Viziotest-stereoscopy  (–.42**), DT omitted (–.41**) and tahito incorrect (–.18*).Analizing the correlation between the criteria total performances in driving  and the predictors can be observed a statistically significant and positive  correlation with the following predictors: tahitoscop correct (.46**), DT correct  (.53**), reaction time (.38**), motor time (.42**), S.D. reaction time (.31**) and  S.D. motor time (.27**). The same criteria correlate statistically significant and  negative with the predictors: Viziotest-stereoscopy (–.51**), DT omitte d (–.27**)  and tahito incorrect (–.32**). Applying the regression model for the criteria total performances in driving  the following regresssion model had been obtained (5). Table 4 Summary Model R R Square Adjusted R square 1 0.742 0.550 0.526 a) Predictors: (Constant), tahitoscop correct, tahitoscop incorrect, DT correct, DT incorrect, DT  omitted, TR motor time, S.D. reaction time, S.D. motor time, viziotest-stereoscopy;  b) Dependent variable: total performances in driving. Table 4 underlines an error reduction of the model with 55% and a strong  correlation between the independent variables and the criteria (0.742). Calculating the F value (23.29) the regression model have a strong predictive  value for the criteria total performances in driving (p Continued driver training in the form of guided lifelong self-improvement activities  is essential for acquiring new skills (Sommer, Herle, Hausler, 2007). These new  skills are required as driving gets more complex with technology: car audio  devices, reading maps on screens, using computers, note taking, talking on phone  or radio, GPS device. The Standard Quality Driving Curriculum needs to be kept  up-dated continuously and the latest additions are to be made available. These updates  are to focus on new developments that technology brings to vehicles and roads, all of which require the acquisition of new skills by drivers. The research finding reveal that designing psychological test batteries comes  in the help of safety traffic and minimizing the accident probability to occur only  taking in consideration the criteria validity.

Classical Mythology Essay -- essays research papers

Classical Mythology What would one think if he goes back in time to a period where myths were common? Would one believe it to be true or hold his own opinion? I would say it depends on the situation and on what type of myth it is. Classical period was full of myths. There were many aspects to mythology that were held important in the classical era. One of the most significant aspects of the Greek mythology was that it was the primary concept to put humans at the midpoint of the universe. Not like the animal deities of the Egyptians and Mesopotamians, the gods of the Greeks were human in form. Not only did they have human physical character, but they symbolized the touching flaws of humans as well. Unlike the gods of other ancient civilizations, Greek gods were not much omniscient and all-powerful, manifesting typical humans. To the Greeks, the life of the gods so closely resembled human life that the gods felt real and touchable, rather than impenetrable and distant. Even the most magical of Greek myths contain real-world elements: the supernatural Hercules lives in the very real city of Thebes, and the goddess Aphrodite is born in a spot any ancient tourist could visit, off the island of Cythera. In general, Greek myths involve less strange and frightening magic than the myths of other ancient civilizations. In this more normal world, individuals become heroes by virtue of bravery and strength rather than supernatural powers. Even though Greek myth lacks wizards and demoni... Classical Mythology Essay -- essays research papers Classical Mythology What would one think if he goes back in time to a period where myths were common? Would one believe it to be true or hold his own opinion? I would say it depends on the situation and on what type of myth it is. Classical period was full of myths. There were many aspects to mythology that were held important in the classical era. One of the most significant aspects of the Greek mythology was that it was the primary concept to put humans at the midpoint of the universe. Not like the animal deities of the Egyptians and Mesopotamians, the gods of the Greeks were human in form. Not only did they have human physical character, but they symbolized the touching flaws of humans as well. Unlike the gods of other ancient civilizations, Greek gods were not much omniscient and all-powerful, manifesting typical humans. To the Greeks, the life of the gods so closely resembled human life that the gods felt real and touchable, rather than impenetrable and distant. Even the most magical of Greek myths contain real-world elements: the supernatural Hercules lives in the very real city of Thebes, and the goddess Aphrodite is born in a spot any ancient tourist could visit, off the island of Cythera. In general, Greek myths involve less strange and frightening magic than the myths of other ancient civilizations. In this more normal world, individuals become heroes by virtue of bravery and strength rather than supernatural powers. Even though Greek myth lacks wizards and demoni...

Analysis of West Side Story Essay -- Film West Side Story Movie Essays

Analysis of West Side Story West Side Story came out in 1961 as a melodramatic musical that took place in New York. It takes the same theme as Shakespeare's, Romeo and Juliet, in that it is about two lovers whose relationship is not accepted by others because of conflicting backgrounds. The artistic intensions of this film are implicitly stated everywhere throughout the film. All of the dancing, singing, acting and pretend fighting was done thoroughly and very well, although the miking and mixing during the pretend fighting did not seem realistic. Specific actors, dancers, and singers were trained and taught how to perform in order to get the message across to the audience that this West Side Story is not just a film, but a theatrical, musical, choreographed, work of art. Specific messages are portrayed in different art forms such as the way the Puerto Rican women dressed compared to the American women. The Puerto Ricans had fluffier, more brightly colored dresses than did the Americans and the Puerto Rican women made their own clothes. I lived in Mexico last summer and in my opinion, their authentic style of clothing still has those same characteristics. The exception was Maria, who was also not allowed to wear a brightly colored dress with a low cut neck because she was too young, and although she claimed to be an American girl now which would make her eligible for being more free and independent, or shall we say sexy, she still had to wear a conservatively cut white dress. A characterization was pointed out about American women being able do more and be less conservative than Puerto Rican women. The musical selections and songs that were sung told a story and narrated the almost the entire film, as is expected in... ...remember hearing Bernardo telling Maria that when she is an old lady with five children then she could boss him around. That statement in itself also holds true to the stereotype these people usually have a lot of children and this was brought up again in the song, America, when Anita asks how she will get all of her cousins into a car. I would say the target audience for this film would be people who enjoy musicals, no matter their age. The time lag would only have much of an effect for younger generations who do not remember the 1960's and the discrimination and the political actions that were being taken during that time period. The film is still a classic I would say because of all of the wonderful costumes, dancing, singing, acting, and clever story telling through songs. I can definitely see why this film was a popular success then as it still is today.

Avon Case Analysis Essay -- Avon Cosmetics Make Up Essays

Avon As of November 1999, Avon was experiencing economic troubles. Avon’s growth rate of annual sales was less than 1.5 percent during the greatest economic boom in history. This prompted a transfer in leadership which appointed Andrea Jung as CEO. Since that time, Avon has experienced remarkable growth. Under the direction of the new CEO, a new strategy was developed to reinvent Avon’s image, improve customer satisfaction, and to increase profit margins and market share. Avon has gained an outstanding reputation as the best direct seller of beauty products. Through the continued efforts and achievements of its sales representatives, Avon is now known worldwide. Avon’s core competence has mainly been its direct selling busniess model. This led Jung and the management team to implement a Sales Leadership program that provided incentives to acquire, train, motivate, and retain the number of active sales representatives it needs to sustain significant growth. Avon also has a representative development program that focuses on the professional training of representatives. This enables the representatives to provide valuable information on Avon brand products. Avon also keeps its superior customer service in other ways of distribution such as the Internet and in the departmen t store sales by having a timely and correct order delivery, one on one information exchange and personalized professional advice. Forces of Competition Rivalry among competing sellers in the CFT industry is strong. The creation of innovative products is crucial to success. This industry focuses on continually developing cutting edge products using the latest science and technology. Rivalry is stronger when customer’s costs to switch brands are low. Switching costs in the CFT industry are very low, due to the large amount of different brands of similar products. This cost is due to the higher number of competitors in the CFT industry and their tendency to copy new products in order to stay competitive. Another Avon objective that aims to alleviate pressures coming from competing sellers includes consists of reinventing their antiquated image. The organization had been a major player in the CFT industry for decades. However, Avon’s management took a reactive approach and failed to evolve with the changing times. Because the CFT industry centers on mage conscious consumers, Jung d... ...na. Also, because the only sales in China are generated through retail outlets, Avon should further develop their Beauty Advisors training. Europe should also be a continued focus for Avon. Industry leader, L’Oreal’s attributes 50% of their total sales to the European market. Avon has had a successful growth rate in Europe but only 23% of the total 2003 sales came from Europe. There is still room to expand in this market. Based on one of the industry’s key success factors, product innovation, Avon should focus even more resources on R&D especially in the areas of anti-aging products and teen products. Because 23 million teenagers have an average weekly disposable income of $85, Avon should continue with innovative teen marketing such as the current â€Å"mark† brand but also work on products for problem teen skin. Being ahead of the industry in introducing new products combined with the company’s already strong market position could further improve Avon’s brand equity and therefore revenues. In particular, Avon should continue to integrate sales representative into all aspects of sales. This is Avon’s own key success factor and what sets them apart from their competitors.

Exam

They are already living in an expensive environment cause by the inflation. Are they also have o pay extra tex for the weste levy? Which Is very unfair to the poor families pay for the levy. Besides the SMEs are also affected by waste levy, especially those in the catering industry. Some of the investigations, found out that about one-third of the disposal Is the food waste, so the catering Industry has to bear the brunt of waste levy.To those small restaurants, waste levy is increased their economic burden, and they will probably turn this tex burden to d third party, so they may Increase the price ot their tood. As a result, the citizens and customers will take up the additional ost of levy for the restaurants, so it doesn't help the Hong Kong econornic as well. Beside the problems to the SMEs and domestic families, the efficiency of waste levy is judging by the people, some of the people think this levy Is useless and wasting money.About the waste levy, there are two wap to implem ent this levy, one is the equal-share system. and one is collected individually on household basis. The equal- share system which means the levy Is charged by building, the levy Is shared between the residents. And this system may cause some unfair situations because of the residents have different amount of disposal. BLit f the levy Is based on household inefficient, besides there are many unsolved problems, for examples, should the levy be charged by volume or by weight of the waste? Exam Which methods would you use to conduct a study? Be specific. Compare (qualitative) ethnographic interviews with (quantitative) survey research. Be aware of research ethics. What is informed consent? What does the American Anthropological Association recommend regarding ethics (read about this in Cotta)? What practical problems can emerge during research? Examples include housing, personal safety, language, and access to research subjects. Contemplate this for your proposal. Recognize the major theoretical trends and how each trend approaches analyzing data.If I provide a description of a study, you should be able to determine which trend the author(s) used to help Interpret their data. (Understand how these trends helped formulate Ideas about culture. ) What Is a â€Å"reflexive† or â€Å"postmodern† ethnography (see Cotta, p. 4749, and Small)? For Smalls Voyages: From Tong Villages to American Suburbs, lectures and video clips: How did Cathy Smalls subject position aff ect her relationships with Tongs and the results of her research? What kinds of research techniques did she use? What dilemmas did she face?What was daily life like in Tong in the asses? Housing conditions? Daily activities of men and women? What changes had already taken place in tap and mat making, uses of cash? What changes had taken place in ‘Lounge and tap and mat making by the asses and then by 2010? What was Tong's social structure O. E. , social divisions among people) before Europeans arrived? What were some major changes Introduced during and after contact with Europeans? How id the social structure, land tenure and politics change from the asses to asses to 2010?Why were Tong people migrating to the U. S. , Australia and New Zealand? How did life and their social status change? What was their life like in the U. S.? What kinds of Jobs did they have? How did they feel about all of this? Compare the experiences and views of Seta and Mann, their daughters, Mali and Tat , Paul/ Emma, and Final. What did being Tong mean to each of them? How did Seta and Mann help other relatives? How did Tong migrants try to maintain the â€Å"Tong ay†? How did migration and remittances affect life and politics in Tong?In particular, how did migration and remittances affect family and religious celebrations? How did migration affect the migrant's social status (in the U. S. And In Tong)? Make sure you understand the following about Tong culture: organization of families (multiple generations In one household, children being adopted or moving between households, lots of visiting and long-term stays by relatives, separation of brothers and sisters after puberty, roles of eldest sister and eldest brother, and Exam They are already living in an expensive environment cause by the inflation. Are they also have o pay extra tex for the weste levy? Which Is very unfair to the poor families pay for the levy. Besides the SMEs are also affected by waste levy, especially those in the catering industry. Some of the investigations, found out that about one-third of the disposal Is the food waste, so the catering Industry has to bear the brunt of waste levy.To those small restaurants, waste levy is increased their economic burden, and they will probably turn this tex burden to d third party, so they may Increase the price ot their tood. As a result, the citizens and customers will take up the additional ost of levy for the restaurants, so it doesn't help the Hong Kong econornic as well. Beside the problems to the SMEs and domestic families, the efficiency of waste levy is judging by the people, some of the people think this levy Is useless and wasting money.About the waste levy, there are two wap to implem ent this levy, one is the equal-share system. and one is collected individually on household basis. The equal- share system which means the levy Is charged by building, the levy Is shared between the residents. And this system may cause some unfair situations because of the residents have different amount of disposal. BLit f the levy Is based on household inefficient, besides there are many unsolved problems, for examples, should the levy be charged by volume or by weight of the waste?

Psychoactive Drugs and Their Effects

Psychology Psychoactive Drugs and their Effects Medications that effect people psychologically are called psychoactive drugs. They are often helpful in treating depression, anxiety, insomnia, and other psychological complications. Psychoactive drugs don’t affect the underlying causes of these disorders, but they can provide symptomatic relief to allow people to live more normal lives. Anxiety can be defined as persistent nervousness, tension, or panic caused by stress or other psychological causes. Anti-anxiety drugs (also know as minor tranquilizers) are used to promote relaxation or reduce the physical symptoms of anxiety. Everyone feels depressed at times, but when it is prolonged and starts interfering with daily life, support, professional help, and psychoactive medications may be appropriate. Insomnia has many causes, including anxiety and depression. When the cause is known and can be treated, sleep patterns generally return to normal. When the insomnia is persistent, sleeping drugs may be appropriate. Drugs are classified according to their effects and actions on the mind and body. Example: Depressants, Hallucinogens, opiates and stimulants. Depressants (sometimes called downers) are a class of drugs that slow normal brain function. It acts on the central nervous system because of this effect on GABA activity that produces a drowsy or calming effect. GABA works to decrease brain activity. Depressants also carry high addictive potential. The withdrawal effects from long-term depressant use can be life- threatening and produce some of the worst consequences of any other drug classifications. Examples: alcohol, Valium, Xanax, Librium, and barbiturates. Hallucinogens (commonly referred to as Psychedelics) are drugs which cause altered perception and feeling. Hallucinogens have powerful mind –altering effects and can change how the brain perceives times, everyday reality, and the surrounding environment. They affect regions of the brain that are responsible for coordination, thought processes, hearing and sight. They can cause sensory or perceptual distortions in people to hear voices, see things, and feel sensations that do not exist. Hallucinogens change the way the brain works by changing the way nerve cells communicate with one another. Hallucinogens possess a moderate potential for addiction with very high potential for tolerance, moderate level of psychological dependence and low potential for physical dependence. Examples: LSD, PCP, MDMA,(Ecstasy), marijuana, mescaline, and psilocybin. Opiates (or narcotics) are powerful painkillers. They are made from opium, a white liquid in the poppy plant. Opiates produce a quick, intense feeling of pleasure followed by a sense of well being and calm. Long-term opiate use changes the way the brain works by changing the way nerve cells communicate with one another. If opiates are taken away from opiate-dependant brain cells, many of them will become overactive. As with many other drugs, opiates possess very addictive potential. Examples: heroin, morphine, codeine, Oxycontin. Stimulants (uppers) are a class of drugs that elevate mood, increase feelings of well-being, and increase energy and alertness. Stimulants can cause the heart to beat faster and will also cause blood pressure and breathing to evaluate. Repeated use of stimulants can result in paranoia and hostility. As with other drugs, stimulants possess very high addictive potential. Examples: cocaine, methamphetamine, amphetamine, MDMA (Ecstasy), nicotine and caffeine. Drug Abuse generally refers to drug taking that cause emotional or physical harm to one self or others example, operating machinery or driving a vehicle, while â€Å"under the influence† of alcohol. Addiction is a broad term referring to a condition in which a person feels compelled to use a specific drug. Drug addiction can be psychological, physical or both. Drug addiction is not the same as substance abuse or drug abuse. A Individual who abuse drugs are not necessarily drug dependent, people who are addicted to drugs, conversely are also called drug abusers.

Arthur Miller Essay

Arthur Miller is a renowned play- writer who was born on October 17th 1915, in New York City. His parent’s originally had came from Italy but soon migrated to America perhaps searching for the American dream. His family lived in prosperity due to the success of his fathers clothing manufacturing business however, as a result of the Wall Street crash the business sadly collapsed therefore; Arthur Miller was forced to work as a warehouseman. The play AVFTB was set in the 20th century as this is when illegal immigration was probably at its most. He possibly got his inspiration for writing this astonishing, sensational and breathtaking play from his parents as they were immigrants searching for the American dream and Alfieri (a lawyer in the play) expresses the themes of immigration and the American dream. However, his main inspiration was almost certainly when his lawyer friend showed him a case which has a similar context to AVFTB. Despite writing the play AVFTB, Arthur Miller is also recognized for his several other plays, such as: The Crucible; The Man Who Had All the Luck; All My Sons and Death of a Salesman. Unfortunately, Arthur Miller died in 2005. Alfieri first introduces himself to the audience when he is telling us the prologue, which sets the mood and scene of the play, ‘This is Red Hook, not Sicily†¦ I’m a lawyer. ‘ In the play he introduces all the characters, ‘This one’s name was Eddie Carbone’ and gives the audience a brief description of the character introduced, ‘a longshoreman. ‘ However, the audience instantly get the impression that Eddie is going to be the tragic hero in the play as when Alfieri first introduces Eddie he says that he has to, ‘let it run it’s bloody course’ then immediately after that he says, ‘This one’s name was Eddie Carbone. ‘ Giving the audience the impression that Eddie is going to be the tragic hero in the play. Furthermore, the audience also immediately get the impression that Eddie is the tragic hero as he tells the story about Vinnie Bonzola and when the family hear the story they are all shocked that someone could betray one of their family members like that. Eddie is especially shocked about this particular scenario and this is very ironic as little does he know that as the play progresses he would be doing the same thing. This makes Eddie’s behaviour even more outrageous and appalling as firstly he is being a hypocrite and secondly, he was probably the most shocked out of his whole family. Therefore, Arthur Miller portrays Eddie’s action through the technique of dramatic irony throughout the play as the audience know that Eddie is going to be the tragic hero near the beginning of the play. Alfieri is also immediately established as being an omniscient narrator/ commentator in the prologue. We know this as he narrates the story in a flashback therefore, he already knows what is going to unravel, Eddie’s inevitable death, and we get reminded of this at various intervals. He tells us about the suspicious little nods the longshoremen give him. This shows the audience how the community perceive lawyers, ‘they’d rather not get too close. ‘ Suspicion and lack of trust is one of the main themes of the play and it shows the audience that the Italian immigrants still stick to the same old social codes of revenge and lack of trust. The Italian immigrants pour into Brooklyn looking for their share of the American dream, ‘gullet of New- York, swallowing the tonnage of the world’. The definition of the American dream is that anyone can come to America and get to the top as there are many opportunities. They may also come here to get away from poverty; lack of employment and mafia vendettas. However, Arthur Miller perhaps chose this setting, ‘the slum that faces the seaward side of the bay’ as Miller was aware that many immigrants came here when he was working in the army in World War 2 in particular longshoremen as they helped put immigrants on ships so they could arrive to America. He must have seen a lot of despicable, horrific and appaling things when he was there so that is why he probably describes Brooklyn like this. Therefore, he might have exaggerated the description to emphasise this point to the audience and also to give an image in the audiences mind. Therefore, Arthur Miller uses the linguistic devices known as hyperboles and imagery to emphasise the point that he is trying to make and also to make the story more entertaining for the audience, ‘His eyes were like tunnels’. Alfieri is a successful example of the American dream as he initially migrated from Italy to America. Alfieri is living the American dream and is now civilised but his practice is entirely unromantic. Alfieri has been a witness to the times when he used to keep a pistol in his filing cabinet however, now as he is civilised he no longer needs to keep a pistol in his filing cabinet. Therefore, Alfieri is following the American way of life and the American social codes. i. e. The law and not revenge. In addition, we know that Alfieri has changed his social code as he speaks differently compared to all the other characters in the play. His language is less rougher than everyone else’s and this is illustrated through the fact that he no longer carries the Sicilian code of conduct. He says that his practice is entirely unromantic as he gets similar cases over and over again, ‘the petty poor troubles of the poor’. Nevertheless, every once in a while there is case that always brings life to his job, ‘the dust in this air is blown away’. The cases perhaps bring life to his office as it reminds him of how he used to be and that is probably why he is so fond of Eddie as it reminds him of his former self. The cases perhaps excite him as they are a dramatic change and the cases are probably more interesting. Arthur Miller perhaps does this to maintain the audiences involvement and too show the audience that the story is going to be exciting so that they stay glued to their seats.