What photography can and should document

What photography can and should document The social crisis of our time, however, calls for a redefinition of what photography can and should document. Obviously, not all documentary photography has to be didactic in pointing to a possibility of social change. But there is a need for discourse among documentary photographers about the content of work, and its relationship to the social movements of our time. The social movements of our day are more complex. Its often harder to find the sense of political certainty which filled the vision, and inspired the dedication of these artists who came before. Photojournalism relies upon the notion that photography captures an objective record of reality for viewers. Yet, at the same time, a clearly defined system of rules and conventions governs the professional practice of photojournalism, delimiting the range of appropriate images and shaping the form those images take. Paradoxically, news photographs are valued as neutral records at the same time that they are admired as carefully crafted pictures. Photojournalists earn kudos not only for what they show, but also for how well they show it. Documentary photography was tied, historically, to both exploration and social reform. Some early documentarians worked, literally, documenting features of the natural landscape. Others worked, like Lewis Hine for the great social surveys of the early part of the century. Their work was used to expose evil and promote change. Their images were, perhaps, something like those journalists made but, less tied to illustrating a newspaper story, they had more space to breathe in. A classic example is Hines image of Leo, 48 inches high, 8 years old, picks up bobbins at fifteen cents a day, in which a young boy stands next to the machines which have, we almost surely conclude, stunted his growth. Documentary photography supposed to dig deep, get at what Robert E. Park (a sociologist who had worked as a journalist for daily papers in Minneapolis, Denver, Detroit, Chicago and New York) called the Big News, be concerned about society, play an active role in social change, be socially responsible, worry about its effects on the society in which its work is distributed. Photographers like Hine saw their work, and it has often been seen since, as having an immediate effect on citizens and legislators. Today, we see this work as having an exploratory, investigative character, something more like social science. Contemporary documentary photographers, whose work converges more consciously with social science, have become aware, as anthropologists have, that they have to worry about, and justify, their relations to the people they photograph. Photographs get meaning, like all cultural objects, from their context. Even paintings or sculptures, which seem to exist in isolation, hanging on the wall of a museum, get their meaning from a context made up of what has been written about them, either in the label hanging beside them or elsewhere, other visual objects, physically present or just present in viewers awareness, and from discussions going on around them and around the subject the works are about. Documentary projects typically go on for years, often focus on social issues rather than news events, and are usually independently conceived and financed by the photographer, rather than commissioned by a publication. Documentary is often assumed to be subjective, to have a point of view on the subject being investigated, but it is also presumed to be honest reporting and photographers in this mode do not generally resort to setting up shots. These sort of projects are sometimes sold in pieces to magazines but with the decline of mass circulation magazines like Life, the usual goal has become to publish the whole project in book form. Photojournalism is used here to refer to the coverage of current news events in an extended format, both in the investigation and shooting stage and in the final story product which normally consists of more than one photograph. Because these projects are time-sensitive, they may take months but not years to complete. Photojournalism is usually commissioned by a publication, such as a magazine or newspaper, but will sometimes later appear in book form as well. While documentary projects are usually driven by the personal interests or convictions of the photographer, photojournalisms subject matter is generally determined by what is deemed news-worthy by the media. The question of whether an image appropriately â€Å"reflects reality† is an issue that documentary photography and photojournalism has contended with throughout their histories. The global audience is changing, and photography needs to reflect this in order to remain effective. Readers are disillusioned at the manipulation they are slowly becoming aware to via pseudo-documentaries on society and politics by filmmakers. That the camera cannot lie is true only in the sense that the images it captures must have existed in one form or another at some particular time. We are familiar with historical photos that have been retouched to include or exclude political figures. We are less familiar with the potential of new technologies for falsifying images, particularly those that appear in newspapers and magazines. Photojournalism, photography that accompanies stories intended for newspaper and magazine readers, has a long and cherished tradition of truthfulness. The faking of photographs, either through stage direction by the photographer or through darkroom manipulation, unfortunately, also has a long tradition. However, computer technology puts photographic faking on a new level of concern as images can be digitized and manipulated without the slightest indication of such trickery. If the manipulation of photographs is accepted for any image, the public will naturally doubt all photographs and text within all publications. Scoopt, the citizen photojournalism arm of Getty Images, claims to have experts who carefully screen images to ensure no digital tampering has occurred. As Far id points out, however, tampering is becoming increasingly difficult to detect with the naked eye—particularly for understaffed organizations trying to push through photos of breaking events. Yet, human beings continue to die from war, murder, natural disasters; to be born, now in litters as large as seven or eight: to live in harmony and conflict. Newspapers and photojournalism have survived the onslaught of electronic media, continuing to report the human maelstrom of a global citizenry as if it were a vivid reality play m the midst of the non reality o turn-of-the-millennium culture. Almost drowned within media criticism have been the voices of those professionals whose appreciation of the subjective nature of observation and reportage has led to more sensitive and sophisticated practice of visual journalism. In daily practice, digital-imaging technology has led to increased awareness of the ease of manipulating visual reportage, in turn leading to higher not lower ethical standards. At the same time, new technology has made visual coverage faster, easier, and more prolific via digital distribution. More and more photojournalists are asked to also be advertising photographers shooting fashion, food, architecture, portrait, and editorial illustration assignments. These assignments take photojournalists away from doing meaningful documentaries about social conditions in their community. These economically driven assignments are fuelled by news directors, publishers, and photographers who dont necessarily distinguish between magazine and television commercial advertising and classic photojournalism documentation. When a young photojournalist is expected to split her time between news and corporate controlled images, its hard for her to take herself seriously as an on-call visual documentarian. Issues and debates surrounding truth will continue as long as media is reported. Even with the saturation of so-called amateur journalists, there will always be motives of greed, a human trait that is undeniable in our society. Some critics have predicted that in a few years, images whether still or moving will not be allowed in trials as physical evidence because of the threat to their veracity created by digital alterations. Most consumers of the media can easily tell the difference between an advertisement and a news story. But sometimes the distinction is so subtle, only highly observant readers can tell the difference. But no matter how the tools of journalism change, fundamental ethical concerns still apply. Displaying violent, sensational images for economic reasons, violating a persons privacy before the judicial process can function, manipulating news-editorial pictures to alter their content, stereotyping individuals into pre-conceived categories and blurring the distinction between advertising and editorial messages were journalism concerns in 1895, are important topics in 1995 and will be carefully considered issues, no doubt, in 2095. Now, as we witness the dramatic transformations to the print journalism industry, these questions not only reveal how the idea of visual journalism has congealed but also indicate the kinds of issues that both photojournalism practitioners and their audiences will need to resolve in a world in which the printed periodical is no longer the favoured institution through which these images are mediated. Over the last fifteen years or so we have witnessed the emergence of new kinds of visual story-telling. Digital photography gave us instantaneous feedback; camera phones gave us ubiquitous photography; picture-sharing sites gave us a developing social milieu in which these instant and ubiquitous pictures could be shared. As a result we have new formal models for presenting visual information. There is more documentary feature production than ever before. Still images are organized as slideshows, browse-and-enlarge albums, or in an irregular temporal flow. Reuters Bearing Witness: Five Years of the Iraq War is a brilliant use of multimedia that is not a linear display of images. These new formal properties will redefine visual grammars and inform how and of what photographers make pictures, but they will also be subject to the new contexts and frameworks that will continue to emerge. The value of information increases not only when it is controlled and withheld but also when it is given shape and purpose, when value articulates with meaning. We may not remember many of the facts that led to the brief student uprising in Chinas Tiananmen Square in 1989, but you can never forget the image of the lone protester standing defiantly in front of a line of menacing, green Chinese tanks. Words and pictures become one powerfully effective communicative medium inside your own mind. Professional photojournalists cannot be in the best places at the right times in order to capture events as they unfold. The future of photojournalism lies with the new breed of moral and aware consumers. The Internet offers us the chance to reinvent photojournalism by enabling us to blend the best practices from still photojournalism, broadcasting, and independent films. The Internet permits us to blend still photographs with audio, text, video, and databases to make compelling content that is far richer than print or broadcasting typically deliver. This new world of visual story telling gives us a chance to reinvent the form and to adapt integration of various media types to tell the most compelling possible story. Visual journalism on the web offers the chance to tell narrative stories that speak powerfully to underlying truths of the human condition. The traditional model of print distribution and direct editorial funding has been unravelling from the 1970s onwards, ever since weekly pictorial magazines like Life folded. This demonstrates photojournalism that required an editorial paymaster was in trouble long before the Internet was an issue or the global recession added to its woes. It involves seeing oneself as a publisher of content and a participant in a distributed story, the form of which helps reshape the content of the story. Rather than just producing a single image or small series of images to be sold into another persons story, multimedia on the web has numerous advantages for visual storytellers. â€Å"Both media are time-based, as opposed to space-based. A print layout is about space — the eye wanders; the viewer controls the time and rhythm. Time-based, of course, means the show is driven by the audio and is viewed over time,† â€Å"good slideshows, I think, have a very different rhythm than video — less literal. Slideshows need to lean on the strength of the still image — these punctuated moments in time that visually meld with the audio.† As a result, photojournalism at the beginning of the 21st century find itself maturing beyond the naive idealism of early and mid-20th-centur positivism, and even beyond the dark cynicism of late-20th-century post modernism, toward a profound sense of purpose: Good visual reportage may very well be the only credible source of reasonably true images in decades to come. The heart of photojournalism is reporting human experience accurately, honestly, and with an overriding sense of social responsibility. The key to earning and maintaining public trust is increasing awareness of the process of visual reporting and its potential to inform or misinform. Published in Life magazine in 1937, Robert Capas photograph shows in one instant the suddenness and loneliness of an anonymous soldiers death. It has been suggested that the photograph was either a chance occurrence by the photographer shooting blindly, or it was staged for the benefit of the camera. He photographed in China, on the beaches of Normandy, in Israel, and finally in Vietnam, where he was killed by a land mine./10 Capa consistently produced images with strong emotional impact and high technical expertise. Those Capa images that have been chosen by his brother Cornell Capa and by Magnum to represent his lifes work emphasize the qualities of drama and heroism and thus have had a crucial role in sustaining the Robert Capa legend. Robert Capas saying, often quoted, that â€Å"If your pictures arent good enough, youre not close enough,† has helped reinforce the important elements of drama and the heroic photographer that have been emphasized in the Magnum style. Capas most famous photograph, â€Å"Death of a Loyalist Soldier, Spain 1936,† often celebrated as the greatest war photograph of all time, creates drama with a close-up depiction of the moment of death and conveys a macho persona with the clear implication of Capas decision to place himself in close proximity to danger. His choice of a type of lens that closely resembles normal human vision, probably around 50 mm, gives the feeling that we are right next to the soldier as he falls. The fact that the viewer can see the landscape around and behind him indicates that Capa is clearly not hidden safely far away with a telephoto lens (which would compress and narrow our view of the background), but is closely engaged with the action.43 Capas photographs of D-Day where he is obviously in the surf with the advancing troops has a similar effect of dramatizing events by being as close as possible to the action, and thereby also endowing the photographer with even more daring and courage than the heroes of the moment, the invading soldiers, since he had a choice that the soldiers did not: to photograph from up close or from afar. While many of Robert Capas photographs of war, such as â€Å"Death of a Loyalist Soldier, Spain 1936,† do not seem particularly dramatic viewed now, in the 1930s they were hailed as the finest pictures of front-line action ever taken.44 Certainly, this kind of close-up view of war was relatively new to viewers who were more used to images of fightings aftermath. However, captions applied by the picture magazines certainly played an important role in the creation of Capas images as dramatic. As Fred Ritchin notes, Capas Spanish Civil War photographs were often accompanied by captions such as In the Heart of the Battle: The Most Amazing War Picture Ever Taken, and You can almost smell the [gun] powder in this picture, and the most famous, This is War! in the British magazine Picture Post.45 Robert Franks book, The Americans. Frank traveled around the United States on a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1955/56 taking photographs of people at funerals, on the street, at drive-in movies, in restaurants, driving cars. Rather than rely on neat geometrical compositions to create abstract patterns, he focused on fleeting, contemplative facial expressions or included empty space to lend his photographs a sense of sad loneliness and of disjuncture between people. In his photograph Elevator Miami Beach the young elevator girl looks wistfully off into the distance as her rich-looking patrons blur past her out the door. Its not possible to know whether it is her sadness the photograph conveys, or Franks. While the documentary aspect of Franks work in The Americans is highly subjective, like much of Magnums own work, he uses the element of artistic expression to create a whole different visual style, leading viewers to conclusions about his subjects at odds with the conclusions drawn from work in the Magnum style.

Ceramics of the North and South Coasts Essay -- Pottery Mochica Cerami

Ceramics of the North and South Coasts Ancient Peruvian Ceramics of the North Coast March 11, 1997 The first pottery pieces found in Peru were made somewhere between 1500 and 1000 b.p. The pieces were found in the central Andean region where a religious cult lived. This cult was called Chavà ­n, after the best known ceremonial center, Chavà ­n de Huà ¡ntar. The religious center was the home to massive temples that were highly embellished with low relief sculptures of gods, animals, and symbols. The pottery found in the area where vessels that were well made and highly decorated with a similar motif as the temples. But the evolution of Peruvian pottery becomes somewhat confusing and complex after this first civilization of potters. There is a division of people into the North Coast and the South Coast. The split created two styles of pottery, although similar, they never quite merge. I am only going to talk about the north coast traditions. On the North coast there are five cultures that evolve into the dominant Mochica style, which was one of the most vigorous and prosperous cultures of Ancient Peru. The next earliest North Coast style, other than the Chavà ­n, started with the Cupisnique people in the Chicama valley. Their ceramics â€Å"closely resembled those of highland Chavà ­n. They were well made and polished, though somewhat thick walled and heavy. The type of firing used produced a dark semireduced ware that varied from brownish gray to carbon black in color. Decoration consisted of bold, curvilinear human, feline, and birds of pray heads, eye patterns, pelt markings, and other brief symbols of geometric devices.† In the valley to the south of the Cupisnique were the Salinar people who someti me during the fifth century b.p. moved into the north coast of Peru and spread its influence throughout the Cupisnique area. Salinar pottery, â€Å"though deceptively primitive in ornamentation, was technologically superior to that of the Cupisnique. Vessels were made of well-prepared clays that were fully oxidized in firing, making them an even orange color. Cream and red slips were used to accentuate sculptural forms and create flat geometric patterns, but not to draw figurative motifs. The technical advances of the controlled oxidation firing and slip decoration soon had their effect on contemporary Cupisnique ceramics.† Personally, I enjoyed the bottle forms they used wi... ...V period they had an extensive kingdom established and it brought together the peoples of all the north coast valleys. The ceramics were decorated in flowing, expressive lines and the modeled vessels showed attention to individual detailed ornamentation. But the creative flow in the ceramic styles was hindered somewhat because of a strict militant rule of the warrior-priest class that was beginning. Yet this was still the most creative time for the Mochica people. The final period in Mochica ceramics, due to a collapse of the culture, brought an abrupt termination of the great art tradition that it had expressed so well. The vessels found from this period show a carelessness in painting designs, and less attention to details in the sculptural forms. Many of the figures modeled in to the vessels were warriors dressed for combat. The decline in quality that can be observed, and the nervousness and tension that were expressed in their designs and forms was related to the pressure from the militant expansionist group, the Wari. The struggle between the Mochica and the Wari, was long and fierce, ending in a total collapse of their culture and a loss a 1200 year ceramic tradition.

Organized Crime Essay

Ever since the time that human beings began living in any form of community setting, it is likely that organized crime, albeit in a primitive form, was born. Today, organized crime is quite different than the stereotyped mobster of the days of Al Capone. With this evolution in mind, this essay will answer various questions about the modern face of organized crime. Why Does Organized Crime Still Exist? Organized crime still exists today for a variety of reasons, especially when the development of the modern world is taken into account. First, on the most basic level, the classic organized crime organizations still serve a vital function in every corner of the world as a means of managing drug trafficking, illegal gambling, prostitution and many more typical vices that represent profitable opportunities for the criminal enterprise. The complex nature of the political, technological, and economic world in the 21st century also lends itself very well to the proliferation of organized crime. For instance, the many global terrorist groups that are active at the present time are very well run organized crime groups (Washington Times, 2003). Technology, and its link to international commerce has also fostered present day organized crime; in a far cry from the days of â€Å"Murder Incorporated†, organized criminals today often use the Internet and related devices to commit what is called transactional crime, such as bank fraud, embezzlement, stock market swindles, and more (Punch, 2005). What are the Roles of Various Law Enforcement Agencies in Fighting Organized Crime? Traditionally, the various law enforcement agencies served the purpose of protecting the common good and to promote common decency by eradicating the vice and corruption that organized crime fueled. In most cases of localized organized crime, local or state police agencies were able to keep organized crime in check; in the extreme cases when organized crime was international in nature, world police organizations such as Interpol and the FBI got involved. Presently, however, due to the globally terroristic nature of organized crime, which represents as much of a threat to global security as it does to the quality of everyday life, organized crime has been challenged by the armed forces of the nations of the world (Olson, 1995). In these circumstances, world leaders have formed crime fighting alliances to act as a global police force to bring international organized criminals to justice (Fighting Organized Crime, 2000). What are the Challenges with Undercover Investigations in Organized Crime and the Use of Informants to Prosecute Organized Crime Figures? Undercover investigation, due to its very nature, poses its own unique challenges; the need for the undercover officer to maintain his or her assumed identity, effectively infiltrate criminal groups, and bring criminals to justice is perilous to say the least. When undercover investigation is employed in organized crime, a whole new realm of challenge and danger surfaces. To begin with, organized crime groups are typically tightly knit, making the introduction of a new person, especially one whose whole life was created as a work of fiction highly difficult. Once â€Å"inside†, the undercover officer must also maintain the identity at the peril of the investigation at least and their life at worst. Use of informants to prosecute organized crime figures is highly challenging as well; the reliability of the informant, who is of course a criminal, can make or break the investigation. Moreover, keeping that informant in place without being revealed as an informant is daunting and also risks the investigation and the life of the informant. Conclusion Organized crime is alive and well in many forms, given the complex nature of the modern world. As time goes by, fighting organized crime will become increasingly difficult, and the stakes will get higher and higher. World leaders and law enforcement must work together to make a difference.

Estudiar ingls en Estados Unidos visas y opciones

Estudiar inglà ©s como segunda lengua (ESL, por sus siglas en inglà ©s ) en Estados Unidos es una actividad que realizan cada aà ±o miles de extranjeros, principalmente durante los meses de verano. Es una gran experiencia que permite conocer in situ al paà ­s y practicar y avanzar en el conocimiento del inglà ©s, el idioma que se ha convertido en la lengua franca del siglo XXI. En este artà ­culo se explica cuà ¡les son las opciones para estudiar inglà ©s, el enlace a la pà ¡gina oficial del gobierno de escuelas que pueden tener a estudiantes internacionales con visa,  cuà ¡ndo se necesita la F-1 de estudiante y otras opciones para practicar inglà ©s con visas de intercambio J-1. Dà ³nde estudiar inglà ©s en Estados Unidos Hay miles de academias de inglà ©s repartidas por todo el paà ­s. Estos establecimientos se dedican exclusivamente a la enseà ±anza de idiomas, centrà ¡ndose en el inglà ©s para nativos de otras lenguas. Lo fundamental es que està ©n autorizadas por el gobierno para emitir un documento que se conoce como I-20, ya que sin à ©l no se puede obtener la visa de estudiante. Pero hay otras opciones como estudiar en colleges o universidades  pasar un aà ±o acadà ©mico de high school matriculado en una escuela pà ºblica o privada americana o incluso, una vez en EEUU, contratar a un profesor particular. Esta à ºltima opcià ³n sà ³lo es posible para las personas que tienen algà ºn tipo de visa que les permite residir en EEUU, temporal o permanentemente- y tomar clases. Quà © ofrecen las academias Los programas para estudiar ESL son muy variados. Pero existe una programacià ³n que se podrà ­a considerar està ¡ndar: 20 horas de clases a la semana de inglà ©s general. En estas aulas se incluye, por lo general, tiempo dedicado a gramà ¡tica, vocabulario, conversacià ³n y escritura. Es muy comà ºn que las academias ofrezcan, por mà ¡s dinero, clases especializadas, como por ejemplo, conversacià ³n privada del estudiante con el profesor, correccià ³n de acento o preparacià ³n de exà ¡menes especializados de acceso a las universidades americanas, como por ejemplo el TOEFL. En cuanto a la puntuacià ³n que es suficiente para entrar en la universidad, depende del programa y de la universidad, si bien hay unas reglas generales. Incluso hay programas en los que se ofertan clases de fotografà ­a, cocina, cine, etc, en inglà ©s. Quà © tener en cuenta para elegir academias de inglà ©s Ademà ¡s de la ubicacià ³n, conviene cerciorarse del nà ºmero de niveles de inglà ©s que se ofrece. Normalmente el primer dà ­a de clases se examina al nuevo estudiante para destinarlo a un aula con personas con nivel similar de inglà ©s. Cuantos mà ¡s niveles, mà ¡s parejo serà ¡ el conocimiento de los estudiantes dentro de una misma clase. Es fundamental tambià ©n cerciorarse antes de inscribirse en una academia sobre los estudios y experiencia de los profesores y si son o no nativos de inglà ©s. Incluso si son nativos no està ¡ de mà ¡s preguntar en quà © paà ­s nacieron y se criaron. A veces se producen problemas porque los profesores pueden ser, por ejemplo, filipinos y a muchos estudiantes no les parece bien porque pensaban que estaban pagando por un profesor con acento americano. Muchas veces el mejor profesor no es el que tiene mayores conocimientos acadà ©micos sobre el inglà ©s, sino el que à ©l mismo ha aprendido otro idioma, ha vivido en el extranjero y entiende las dificultades de los estudiantes o tiene una gran experiencia enseà ±ando inglà ©s a personas nativas de otro idioma. Otra opcià ³n, aunque mà ¡s cara, es alquilar un apartamento por un tiempo limitado (un sublet, en inglà ©s americano). Un buen lugar para buscar es la pà ¡gina craiglist. Pero mucho cuidado con pagos y transferencias porque aunque es una pà ¡gina muy popular y que, en general, funciona bien, se han dado casos de fraude. Las academias, a cambio de una tarifa, buscan alojamiento para los estudiantes. Son comunes las opciones de vivir con una familia estadounidense, o alojarse en residencias estudiantiles o tipo YMCA. Por à ºltimo, tambià ©n conviene conocer de antemano quà © actividades extraescolares se ofrecen y dentro de las mismas cuà ¡les està ¡n incluidas en el precio y cuà ¡les hay que pagar a mayores. Tambià ©n es interesante saber el nà ºmero de estudiantes por clase y el idioma de los compaà ±eros. Si todos hablan espaà ±ol, aunque sean de distintos paà ­s, posiblemente se acabe aprendiendo poco inglà ©s en esa aula. Visas de estudiante Se necesita una F-1 para estudiar en EEUU. Para conseguirla es necesario que la academia a la que se quiere ir emita un formulario conocido como I-20 y està © autorizado por las autoridades americanas para enrolar a estudiantes extranjeros. Tambià ©n es necesario el SEVIS. Si se està ¡ descontento con la academia elegida, es posible hacer un transfer de visa a otro centro acadà ©mico. Los trà ¡mites de la visa pueden llevar su tiempo y puede ser denegada por la oficina consular correspondiente. Por lo que hasta tener la visa en mano no se recomienda comprar el billete de avià ³n. Recordar que no se puede estudiar inglà ©s 20 horas a la semana o mà ¡s con una visa de turista. Eso serà ­a una violacià ³n migratoria. Los espaà ±oles y chilenos pueden viajar sin visa a Estados Unidos, por formar parte su paà ­s de las naciones acogidas al Programa de Exencià ³n de Visas. Debido a esto es muy comà ºn que cuando van a EEUU por estancias inferiores a tres meses se anoten en academias de inglà ©s para recibir clases. Sin embargo esta prà ¡ctica puede constituir una violacià ³n de las leyes americanas y tiene tener consecuencias, como la imposibilidad de conseguir una visa cuando se solicite una. Es fundamental no sobrepasar las 19 horas de clase a la semana para no tener problemas. Consejos Las visas F-1 tienen muy regulado que trabajo se puede hacer en situaciones concretà ­simas. Aceptar trabajos de meseros, nià ±eras, etc, està ¡ prohibido y supone una violacià ³n del visado. Testimonial Lee esta entrevista a Miguel Pà ©rez. Llegà ³ a EEUU como estudiante con una beca y, tras pasar por un par de visas de trabajo temporal, acabà ³ siendo patrocinado para una tarjeta de residencia. Incluye consejos muy prà ¡cticos y sensatos del propio Miguel. Te puede interesar Si tu objetivo es prepararte para estudiar la carrera universitaria, estos son los 8 documentos que necesitarà ¡s para presentar una aplicacià ³n completa a una universidad. Como puedes ver, necesitarà ¡s probar tus conocimientos de inglà ©s de una manera muy precisa. Orienta tus clases de inglà ©s a ese objetivo. Opciones para practicar el inglà ©s Algunos programas de las visas J-1 de intercambio son ideales para practicar inglà ©s y/o vivir la experiencia americana, por ejemplo trabajar como staff  de campamento de verano  o solicitar una visa visa  para trabajar y viajar por EU en el verano, para estudiantes universitarios de otros paà ­ses. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a migratoria para ningà ºn caso particular.